Step 1: Understanding the context
The question asks about the country that will celebrate the bicentennial anniversary of its independence from Spanish rule in 2025. Bicentennial refers to a 200-year anniversary of an event, in this case, independence from Spanish colonization.
Step 2: Identifying the country
Bolivia gained independence from Spain on August 6, 1825.
Therefore, in 2025, Bolivia will mark the 200th anniversary of its independence.
Step 3: Verifying other options
North America and Asia are continents, not countries, so they are not relevant to the question.
Cuba also gained independence from Spain but much later, in 1898, so it is not the right answer for this question.
Step 4: Conclusion
Bolivia is the country celebrating its bicentennial independence anniversary in 2025.
Step 5: Final Answer
The correct answer is Bolivia, option (1).
Criminology is the scientific and jurisprudential study of crime, criminal behaviour, and the penal response of the state. It operates at the intersection of law, sociology, psychology, and public policy. Its foundational principle is nullum crimen sine lege, nulla poena sine lege, stressing that there is no crime nor punishment without a pre-existing law. Traditional criminology was shaped by the Classical School, emphasizing free will and rationality. Influenced by Bentham’s utilitarianism, it viewed punishment as a deterrent mechanism, echoing audi alteram partem in demanding procedural fairness. In contrast, the Positivist School, focused on biological, psychological, and sociological causes of criminality, thereby shifting from retributive justice to rehabilitative models.
Modern criminology encompasses diverse domains like victimology, penology, white-collar crime, cybercrime, and transnational offences. The traditional ele ments of crime, mens rea and actus reus remain crucial. However, strict liability offences and corporate crimes often challenge this binary. With the advent of globalization, criminology now interfaces with international criminal law, human rights jurisprudence, and restorative justice. It aims to reintegrate the offender and provide restitution to victims. Furthermore, critical criminology interrogates how law disproportionately penalizes marginalized groups, reflecting concerns of penal populism, mass incarceration, and criminalization of poverty. This evolving discipline critiques not just criminal behaviour but the social construction of de viance itself.